The concentration levels of different arsenic species in rice heavily depends on environmental conditions and to lesser extend on genotype of the rice plant plants. This is the result of a review of research on arsenic speciation in rice for the last 10 years.
Background:Rice contributes significantly to arsenic exposure of humans through the diet, because arsenic is mobilized from paddy field soils and accumulated by the rice plant. Arsenic speciation in the rice grain is dominated by inorganic arsenic and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA). MMA (monomethylarsonic acid) is occasionally detected in some samples but it is present only as a minor component. Interestingly, both the total concentration as well as the speciation of arsenic depends on many factors, such as plant genotype, soil type, water management and so on. Such relationships have been reviewed by a group of Chinese and UK researchers. Their review appeared recently in Environmental Science & Technology (see below).
The new review:
The authors investigated the global pattern of arsenic speciation in rice from different countries and the factors causing the variation. Rice produced in Asia shows a strong linear relationship between inorganic As and total arsenic concentration, with inorganic arsenic contributing to about 78 %.
The relationships between DMA and total As are linear for the rice produced in the three regions, but the slope decreases in the order of U.S.A. > European > Asian. In general, the iAs percentage tends to decrease, while the DMA percentage increases, with the total As concentration in the U.S.A. and European rice. These trends are not apparent in the Asian rice. Within the combined data set, the percentages of inorganic arsenic and DMA vary from 10 to 100% and from 0 to 90%, respectively.
Although there is significant variation of arsenic bioaccumulation with the genotype of the rice plant, the regional variations are primarily related to environmental factors. Because DMA can represent a substantial proportion of the total arsenic in rice grain, it is pertinent to ask where the methylated As species originate. There is growing evidence that methylated arsenic species are not generated by the rice plant itself, but by microorganisms in the soil. Although the microbial community responsible for methylation is only poorly understood, it is clear that culture conditions such as soil flooding and addition of organic matter increase the methylation of arsenic.
Plant roots are able to take up inorgnic arsenic as well as MMA and DMA, but the rates of uptake decrease with increasing number of methyl groups. In contrast to the decreasing uptake efficiency, the translocation from roots to shoots generally increases with the increasing number of methyl group in the arsenic compounds. Thus, a concentration ratio of DMA to inorganic arsenic in the soil solution of 1:5 could lead to equal proportions of the two arsenic species in rice grain. Different transport mechansism may also play a role for the different distribution of inorganic and methylated arsenic species within the rice grain.
Inorganic arsenic, especially arsenite, shows a strong accumulation on the surface of the grain, while DMA permeates readily into the endosperm. This difference explains why DMA is present at a greater proportion in polished rice (i.e., endosperm) than in the rice bran; the reverse is true for inorganic arssenic.
Implication for human health
Recent discussions on the potential health risk of arsenic in rice are based on the content of inorganic arsenic only, because there is scarce information with regard to the toxicology of methylated arsenic species. While early studies have shown already that methylated species are readily absorbed by humans across the gastrointestinal tract, they were also quickly excreated to a great percentage via the urine. DMA is a weak carcinogen, but the level of ingestion from rice consumption is much lower than that of concern.
At the end of their review, the authors highlight the open questions calling for further research:
1) What are the microorganisms responsible for arsenic methylation in the soil ?
2) What are the environmental factors controlling the methylation rate ?
3) Is volatilization of arsenic from the paddy field taking place to a significant extent ?
4) What are the genotype factors responsible for different arsenic speciation and accumulation ?
5) What is the reason for the efficient translocation of methylated species to the rice grain ?
The new review
Fang-Jie Zhao, Yong-Guan Zhu, Andrew A. Meharg,
Methylated Arsenic
Species in Rice: Geographical Variation, Origin, and Uptake Mechanisms,
Environ. Sci. Technol., 47 (2013) 3957-3966.
doi: 10.1021/es304295n
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Related EVISA resources Link database: Toxicity of arsenic compounds Link database: Human arsenic exposure via the diet Link database: Arsenic cycle in the environment Brief summary: LC-ICP-MS - The most often used hyphenated system for speciation analysis
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September 5, 2008: Exposure to inorganic arsenic may increase diabetes risk March 15, 2008: Arsenic in rice milk exceeds EU and US drinking water standards February 15, 2008: Arsenic speciation in rice: a question of the rice plant species March 7, 2007: Elevated Arsenic Levels Found In Rice Grown In South Central States of the USA August 3, 2005: Surprisingly high concentrations of toxic arsenic species found in U.S. rice May
15, 2005: Use of organoarsenicals as pesticides may lead to
contamination of soils and groundwater with toxic arsenic specieslast time modified: July 22, 2020
